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The old saying that "Dead men do tell tales" was borne out in a remarkable
French murder case in which a skeleton gave up sufficient of its
secrets to identify the victim and trap a pair of
murderers.
In 1889 police were called to a riverside location near
Lyons where the badly decomposed body of a man had been
discovered. Close by was a decayed wooden trunk bearing evidence
that it had been sent to Lyons from Paris by railway.
Monsieur Goron, Chief of the Surete, thought the corpse
might be that of a Paris bailiff, a man called Gouffe, who had
been reported missing. One of Gouffe's relatives was asked to view
the remains, but as he was unable to make any identification the
corpse was buried. Convinced that a crime had been committed,
Boron obtained an exhumation order and three months after it was
discovered the corpse was disinterred.
The post-mortem examination was carried out by Alexandre
Lacassagne, Professor of Forensic Medicine at Lyons University.
His attention was drawn to the condition of the right leg and
ankle of the skeleton which suggested the muscles on that limb had
been weaker than on the other. He thought this might have been due
to disease and further examination showed that the right kneecap
was deformed indicating inflammation of the joint during life. The
weights of the bones in the right leg were also significantly
lower than those of the left. Lacassagne's opinion was that the
dead man had probably suffered tubercular disease in that leg, and
would certainly have walked with a limp.
Inquiries revealed that the missing bailiff had been
treated for a knee complaint and did walk with a limp. This
information, together with an impressive array of evidence,
enabled the Professor to announce to officers of the Surety,
"Gentlemen, I present M. Gouffë" A police investigation ensued
which resulted in the arrest of Michel Eyraud, a shady
business-man, and his mistress, Gabrielle Bompard, who were
eventually convicted of murdering Gouffé to prevent his official
inquiry into their business affairs.
When all that is left is a pile of bones, that's when the police
know to call in a forensic anthropologist.
Anthropology is the study of humans and it consists of several
sub-fields:
- Physical anthropology – the study of the primate order, past
and present, such as primate biology, skeletal biology, and human
adaptation
- Cultural and linguistic anthropology – the study of the
aspects of human society and language, past and present
- Archaeology – the study of past cultures via material remains
and artefacts
To some degree, forensic anthropologists draw on each of these
fields, but generally rely on knowledge from physical anthropology
to apply their expertise to skeletal remains. According to the
American Board of Forensic Anthropology, "Forensic anthropology is
the application of the science of physical anthropology to the legal
process. The identification of skeletal, badly decomposed, or
otherwise unidentified human remains is important for both legal and
humanitarian reasons. Forensic anthropologists apply standard
scientific techniques developed in physical anthropology to identify
human remains, and to assist in the detection of crime." Given the
emphasis on skeletons, there is a strong link between forensic
anthropology and odontology.
Much of what occurs in forensic anthropology comes from the area
of osteology, or the
study of bones. They will also be familiar with human anatomy and
how it varies in different populations. Some forensic
anthropologists may also specialize in body decomposition and entomology (the study
of insects) in order to help estimate the time of death. In
recent years the task of the forensic anthropologist has become more
complex and sophisticated. Forensic anthropologists assist medical
and legal specialists to identify known or suspected human
remains.
The science of forensic anthropology includes archaeological excavation; examination of hair, insects, plant materials and
footprints; determination of elapsed time since death; facial
reproduction; photographic superimposition; detection of anatomical
variants; and analysis of past injury and medical treatment.
However, in practice, forensic anthropologists primarily help to
identify a deceased person based on the available evidence.
For example, when a skeleton found in a forest is brought to a
morgue for examination, the first step is to determine whether the
remains are human, animal, or inorganic material. If human, an
anthropologist then attempts to estimate age at death, racial
affiliation, sex, and stature of the decedent.
If the skeleton shows evidence of prolonged burial or is
accompanied by coffin nails or arrow points, it usually represents
an historic or prehistoric burial rather than a recent death.
Construction crews frequently unearth such skeletons during road or
housing excavations. After combining all of the evidence, the
anthropologist determines the skeleton's possible significance to
medical and legal authorities.
Although the primary task of anthropologists is to establish the
identity of a decedent, increasingly they provide expert opinion on
the type and size of weapon/s used and the number of blows
sustained by victims of violent crime. It should be noted, however,
that forensic pathologists or related
experts in forensic medicine determine the cause or manner of death,
not the forensic anthropologist. Perhaps the anthropologist's most valuable skill is familiarity
with subtle variations in the human skeleton. Although most adult
skeletons have the same number of bones, no two skeletons are
identical. Therefore, observations of patterns or unique skeletal
traits frequently lead to positive identifications. The most
frequently used method for identification is to compare before- and
after-death dental photo images. If such photo images do not exist, or if they are
unavailable, then old skeletal injuries or anatomical skeletal
variants revealed in other photo images may provide the comparative
evidence necessary to establish a positive identification.
Forensic anthropologists generally work with forensic pathologists,
odontologists, and
homicide investigators to point out evidence of foul play and assist
with time of death estimates.
When a body has been found,
particularly if there is little left but the skeleton the forensic
anthropologist would be called in to help answer some key questions,
such as:
- What
was the sex of the individual?
- What
is the individual's racial affiliation?
- What
is the individual's age?
- What
is the individual's stature?
- How
long has the individual been dead?
- Is there any evidence of trauma or foul play at or near the
time of death?
Except for the skull, few persons are able to distinguish between
human and animal bones with certainty. This is a matter for the
expert anatomist, and where the remains are fragmentary he may
require confirmation of human origin by applying the precipitin test.
Once they have been verified as human, the bones of an unidentified
skeleton are examined to establish the primary characteristics of
the dead person - sex, age and height.
In general the skeleton provides ample evidence of
its sex and age: the bones of the female, for example, are less
robust than those of the male and the ridges which provide
attachments for muscles and tendons are less prominent in the
female. The pelvis, thigh-bones and skull are particularly noted for
their sexual characteristics. The female pelvis, constructed to meet
the needs of child-bearing, has several features - notably wider
hips - which distinguish it from the male. Apart from general
appearance, a number of measurements can be made of pelvic bones
which help to establish sex. The difference in ratio between the
lengths of the pubis and ischium (known as the
ischium-pubis index) is commonly used for this purpose.
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Age is determined by studying a number of skeletal features,
principally the skull, teeth and centres of ossification. As the
young human body develops from soon after conception until early
adulthood, the growth of the bones is regulated by centres of
ossification which gradually fill out and fuse together to give the
bones shape and size. This process is established in a regular
pattern which enables the skilled anatomist to give a reliable
estimate of age to within one or two years. Examination of the
growing ends of the bones epiphyses is especially
relevant. The growth centres at the lower ends of the limb-bones
permit the limbs to lengthen during childhood and thereby increase
the height of the individual. These epiphyses are soft and
cartilaginous during the growing period but gradually harden into
solid bone and fuse with the main shaft of the bone as adulthood is
reached. The head of the thigh-bone (femur) fuses between 18 and 20
years, and part of the hip during the 24th year. Consideration of
the epiphyses in the long bones of a skeleton can therefore yield
reliable information abut age up to 25 years. After that, age-determination depends on
looking at the skull and other bones which show changes with age. As
females mature quicker than males, the ageing aspects of the female
skeleton are usually about a year ahead of the male.
 Skulls have a number of important
features which help to determine the age and sex of a skeleton. The
appearance of the sutures or scams on top of the skull can give its
approximate age. The vault of the cranium is made up of a number of
flat bones which interlock at the edges by means of striations or
sutures. In infants there are large gaps between these bones, which
gradually close up after the age of 30. This fusing process occurs
in a particular sequence beginning from the inside of the skull and
working outwards. It is the state of these closures which allows age
to be approximated; complete absence of closure indicates that the
skeleton is less than 30 years old.
Age-determinations based on the state of the skull sutures are
not exact, but in the absence of other information may be the only
method of ageing human remains. This method was used by Professors
John Glaister and J. C. Brash in 1935 to estimate the ages of two
dismembered corpses which turned up in a ravine under the Carlisle
to Edinburgh road. The experts estimated the age of each body to
within a year of its actual age, which became known when they were
identified as Dr Buck Ruxton's murder victims.
The Ruxton case provided a number of challenges for the
team of experts assembled from Glasgow and Edinburgh Universities,
and the victims' skulls featured prominently in their scientific
investigation. Sex differences are notable in the skull, the main
distinguishing feature being that the female skull is smaller than
the male. The mastoid processes and orbital ridges are less
prominent in the female, and the eye sockets and forehead are more
rounded. Sex differences are also distinguishable in the pelvis,
but the skull, being one of the human frame's more durable parts,
is especially significant in this respect. In the case of one of
Ruxton's victims Professor Brash was able to report, 'Secondary
sex characters are so well marked that I can express without
hesitation the definite opinion that it is the skull of a
female.'
A powerful piece of identification evidence in this case
was achieved by the development of a new technique. A photographic
negative enlarged to life size was made of a portrait of Ruxton's
wife, and this was superimposed on an X-ray of the skull. The
result was a startling match, which Professor Glaister modestly
described as 'a close comparison'. The medical investigation of
the Ruxton case won wide acclaim, and Glaister and Brash received
an international award for their account of it.
The height of a person in life can also be
determined by studying the long bones of the skeleton. An
approximation of stature can be obtained by measuring from
finger-tip to finger-tip of the out- stretched arms, the span of
which is roughly equal to the body height. The idea that a fixed
relationship exists between the lengths of the limbs, especially the
legs, and the total length of the body was developed by Professor
Mathieu Orfila. His calculations proved unreliable, but the method
was improved first by Dr Etienne Rollet and then by Dr Karl Pearson.
Pearson's Formula, published in 1899, has now been discarded for the
more accurate Dapertuis and Hadden formula.
Estimating the time interval since death can be
extremely difficult. For the most part, such an estimate is based on
the amount and condition of soft tissue, such as muscle, skin, and
ligaments present, the preservation of the bones, extent of
associated plant root growth, odour, and any carnivore and insect
activity. However, many other variables must also be considered,
including the temperature at the time of death, penetrating wounds,
humidity/aridity, soil acidity, and water retention. The longer the
time since death, the more difficult it is to determine the time
interval since death.
Skulls have also featured as macabre exhibits in court-rooms. A
juror fainted when the yellowed skull of Max Garvie was produced as
part of the prosecution evidence against his wife Sheila and her
lover Brian Tevendale, who were accused of murdering him. Garvie's
body, shot through the head, was found at St Cyrus in Scotland in l
968. This followed a stormy love-triangle which led to Sheila Garvie
and Brian Tevendale electing to kill Max. The victim was shot dead
while he lay asleep and his body was subsequently hidden. Garvie and
Tevendale were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment.
The question of racial affiliation is difficult
to answer because, although racial classification has some
biological components, it is based primarily on social affiliation.
Nevertheless, some anatomical details, especially in the face, often
suggest the individual's race. In particular, white individuals have
narrower faces with high noses and prominent chins. Black
individuals have wider nasal openings and subnasal grooves. American
Indians and Asians have forward-projecting cheekbones and
specialized dental features.
Some common terms used in anthropology associated with
skeletons.
- cartilage - a connective tissue, a strong stretchy type of tissue
found in humans in the joints and other places such as the nose,
throat and ears.
- diaphysis - The shaft of a long bone.
- epiphyses - A part of a long bone where bone growth occurs.
- femur - the long bone in the upper part of the leg
- flat bone - a bone that is thin in section, such as the skull
bones.
- humerus - the long bone in the upper half of your arm, between
your shoulder and your elbow.
- irregular bone - a bone with more than one shape in section, such
as the vertebrae.
- ligament - A band of fibrous tissue that connects bones or
cartilages, serving to support and strengthen joints.
- long bone - one of the elongate bones of the limbs, consisting of
a shaft, or diaphysis, and two extremities, or
epiphyses; the long bone establishes the height or length of
the limb.
- ossification - The formation of bone or of a bony substance, the
conversion of fibrous tissue or of cartilage into bone or a bony
substance.
- radius - One of two bones which constitute the forearm.
- sesamoid - Sesamoid bones, Sesamoid cartilages, small bones or
cartilages formed in tendons, like the patella and pisiform in man
- short bone - a bone that is of approximately equal dimension in
all directions.
- tendon - A fibrous, strong, connective tissue that connects muscle
to bone.
- tibia - the bone which can be felt at the front of the lower
leg . The shinbone.
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